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We say a rational function $F(z)$ is positive if the coefficients of its Maclaurin expansion, in the variable $z$, are non-negative.

In this context, let $$F_r(z):=\frac{1 - 2z + z^r - (1 - z)^r}{(1 - z)^{r - 1}(1 - 2z)}.$$

Is the following true? Note: $F_2(z)=0$ and $F_3(z)$ is easier to manage.

QUESTION. For $r\geq4$, each of the rational functions $F_r(z)$ is positive.

Example. After simplifications, $F_4(z)=\frac{2z}{(1-z)^2}$.

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  • $\begingroup$ If I had the power to change definitions, I would call $F(z)$ as above non-negative. $\endgroup$ Commented May 11, 2022 at 11:35
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    $\begingroup$ @HenrikRüping: In fact, their coefficients for $r\geq 3$ are positive. So, it's ok to call them positive. $\endgroup$ Commented May 11, 2022 at 11:44

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Notice that $$F_r(z) = \frac{1}{(1-z)^{r-1}} - \sum_{k=0}^{r-1} \left(\frac{z}{1-z}\right)^k$$ and therefore for $r\geq 4$ and $n\geq 1$, we have \begin{split} [x^n]\ F_r(z) &= \binom{n+r-2}{r-2} - \sum_{k=1}^{r-1} \binom{n-1}{k-1} \\ & = \binom{n+r-2}{r-2} - \binom{n-1}{r-2} - \binom{n-1}{r-3} - \sum_{k=1}^{r-3} \binom{n-1}{n-k} \\ &\geq \binom{n+r-2}{r-2} - \binom{n}{r-2} - \sum_{k=1}^{r-3} \binom{n-1+r-3-k}{n-k} \\ &= \binom{n+r-2}{r-2} - \binom{n}{r-2} - \binom{n+r-4}{r-3} \\ &\geq \binom{n+r-2}{r-2} - \binom{n+r-4}{r-2} - \binom{n+r-4}{r-3} \\ &= \binom{n+r-3}{r-3}\\ &> 0. \end{split}


ADDED. The above bound implies a stronger statement: for $r\geq 2$ the function $$F_r(z) + 1 - \frac{1}{(1-z)^{r-2}}$$ is non-negative.

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  • $\begingroup$ $\binom{n+r-2}{r-2} - \sum_{k=1}^{r-1} \binom{n-1}{k-1}$ is non-negative also by a simple combinatorial reasons: take $n-1$ boys and $r-1$ girls and choose $r-2$ children from them: if you fix the chosen $k-1$ boys, you may always add $r-k-1$ girls to them. $\endgroup$ Commented May 12, 2022 at 18:52
  • $\begingroup$ @FedorPetrov: Essentially this argument equivalent to the use of Vandermonde's identity: $$\binom{n+r-2}{r-2} = \sum_{k=1}^{r-1} \binom{n-1}{k-1}\binom{r-1}{r-1-k}$$ and noticing that $\binom{r-1}{r-1-k}\geq 1$. With a bit of extra effort I got a bit stronger bound. $\endgroup$ Commented May 12, 2022 at 19:08

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