Is there an elementary proof of a result about the parity of the period of the repeating block in the continued fraction expansion of square roots

Question

It is a known fact that for a Prime $P$, $P\equiv 1$ mod $4$ iff the length of the period in the repeating block for the continued fraction expansion of $\sqrt{P}$ is odd. I have an elementary proof of this using the classical result: $P\equiv 1$ mod $4$ iff $x^2-Py^2=-1$ has integer solutions and a proof that $x^2-Py^2=-1$ has integer solutions iff the length of the period in the repeating block for the continued fraction expansion of $\sqrt{P}$ is odd.

I have tried repeatedly to give a direct elementary proof that $P\equiv 1$ mod $4$ implies that the length of the period in the repeating block for the continued fraction expansion of $\sqrt{P}$ is odd, but cant seem to figure it out. (I have a direct elementary proof of the converse)

Does anyone know of an elementary proof of this result or where I may find one?

Answer 1

This doesn't answer your question, but it might gives some intuition as to why this is true. Given the fact that there exists a solution to the equation $x^2-Py^2=-1$ when $P\equiv 1(\mod 4)$, one sees that the matrix $$ \begin{pmatrix}x & Py \\\ y & x\end{pmatrix} $$ fixes $\pm\sqrt{P}$ (under the action of $PGL_2(\mathbb{Z})$ on $\mathbb{RP}^1=\partial_{\infty} \mathbb{H}^2$). The conjugacy class of a primitive matrix in $GL_2(\mathbb{Z})$ (which is not reducible or finite order) is determined by the closed geodesic on the modular orbifold that it represents. This in turn is determined by a sequence of triangles which the geodesic crosses in the Farey graph: These triangles come in bunches sharing a common vertex, where the number in each bunch corresponds to coefficients of the continued fraction expansion. The matrix is conjugate to $$\pm \left[\begin{array}{cc}1 & a_1 \\\ 0 & 1\end{array}\right] \left[\begin{array}{cc}1 & 0 \\\ a_2 & 1\end{array}\right] \cdots \left[\begin{array}{cc}1 & a_{2n} \\\ 0 & 1\end{array}\right]$$ if the determinant is 1, and to $$\pm \left[\begin{array}{cc}1 & a_1 \\\ 0 & 1\end{array}\right] \left[\begin{array}{cc}1 & 0 \\\ a_2 & 1\end{array}\right] \cdots \left[\begin{array}{cc}1 & 0 \\\ a_{2n-1} & 1\end{array}\right] \left[\begin{array}{cc}0 & 1 \\\ 1 & 0\end{array}\right] $$ if the determinant is $-1$.

[Remark: the labels in this figure don't quite correspond to the matrices - it should be $a_i$'s instead of $\alpha_i$'s, and $\alpha_{\pm}$ should be $\pm\sqrt{P}$]

The number of such factors corresponds precisely to the period of the continued fraction expansion of fixed points of the matrix, since the closed geodesic is asymptotic in $\mathbb{H}^2$ to the geodesic connecting $\infty$ to $\sqrt{P}$, whose Farey sequence gives rise to the continued fraction expansion of $\sqrt{P}$. This number is even if and only if the matrix is orientation preserving, which is if and only if the determinant is 1. So the determinant is $1$ if and only if the continued fraction has even period, and the determinant is $-1$ if and only if the continued fraction has odd period, corresponding to $P\equiv 1(\mod 4)$.

Answer 2

See Nagell, Introduction to number theory, Theorem 107. Originally it was proved by Legendre, see Dickson, L. E. History of the theory of numbers. Vol. II, p. 365. There are more examples due to Dirichlet, see Dirichlet's Werke, Bd. 1 (1889), pp. 219-236.

An extended bibliography on negative Pell’s equation can be found in Gerasim, I.-Kh.I. On the genesis of Redei’s theory of the equation $x^2 -Dy^2 =-1$. (Russian) Zbl 0731.01014 Istor.-Mat. Issled. 32/33, 199-211 (1990).