There are many invariants can be measured by local cohomology. Here are a few examples.
I assume $(R, \mathfrak{m})$ is a complete local ring of dimension $d$. The non Cohen-Macaulay locus of $R$ is defined as follows
$nCM(R) = \{\mathfrak{p} \in \mathrm{Spec}(R) \ | \ R_{\mathfrak{p}} \text{ is not Cohen-Macaulay}\}.$
We can ask some questions about the non Cohen-Macaulay locus as: Is $nCM(R)$ a closed subset of $\mathrm{Spec}(R)$? What is the dimension of $nCM(R)$? Local cohomology give us the answers of these questions.
Indeed, let $\mathfrak{a}_i = \mathrm{Ann}(H^i_{\mathfrak{m}}(R))$, $i \ge 0$, and $\mathfrak{a} = \mathfrak{a}_0 \ldots \mathfrak{a}_{d-1}$. It is easy to see that if $R$ is Cohen-Macaulay i.e. $nCM(R) = \emptyset$, then $\mathfrak{a} = R$ since $H^i_{\mathfrak{m}}(R) = 0$ for all $i = 0, \ldots, d-1$. The Faltings annihilator theorem give us the answer in general case (see Brodmann-Sharp: local cohomology)
Theorem 1. Suppose $R$ is equidimensional. Then we have
(i) $nCM(R) = Var(\mathfrak{a})$ is a closed subset of $\mathrm{Spec}(R)$.
(ii) The dimension of $nCM(R)$ is $\dim R/\mathfrak{a}$.
We can define a generalization of the class of Cohen-Macaulay ring as follows.
Definition 2. The ring $R$ is called generalized Cohen-Macaulay if $\dim R/\mathfrak{a} \le 0$, that is $H^i_{\mathfrak{m}}(R)$ has finite length for all $i = 0, \ldots, d-1$.
It should be noted that the affine cone of any nonsingular projective variaty is generalized Cohen-Macaulay. Working with generalized Cohen-Macaulay rings are much more difficult than Cohen-Macaulay rings but we have some chances to do so with $\ell(H^i_{\mathfrak{m}}(R))$. For example, let $\mathfrak{q}$ be a parameter ideal of $R$. Then we always have $\ell(R/\mathfrak{q}) \ge e(\mathfrak{q})$ the multiplicity of $q$. Moreover $R$ is Cohen-Macaulay if and only if $\ell(R/\mathfrak{q}) = e(\mathfrak{q})$ for some (and any) $\mathfrak{q}$. When $R$ is generalized Cohen-Macaulay, the different $\ell(R/\mathfrak{q}) - e(\mathfrak{q})$ are bounded above by an invariant in terms of local cohomology. More precisely we have
$$\ell(R/\mathfrak{q}) - e(\mathfrak{q}) \le \binom{d-1}{i} \ell(H^i_{\mathfrak{m}}(R))$$
(see Trung's paper: towards a theory of generalized Cohen-Macaulay modules, Nagoya, 1986)