If $H$ is the terminal category (=sheaves on the empty space), then $\pi_k^HS^n$ (notation for homotopy groups of "spheres" in $H$) is known!
The slice category $H=\mathrm{Spaces}/B$ is an $(\infty,1)$-topos. The homotopy groups of spheres in this setting amount to the homotopy groups of the space $\mathrm{map}(B,S^n)$ of unbased maps (with basepoint at a constant map $B\to S^n$). This shows that $\pi_k^HS^n$ need not be trivial if $k<n$. This also provides non-trivial examples in which $\pi_k^HS^n$ is isomorphic to the "usual" homotopy groups of spheres (e.g., if $B=BG$ for $G$ a finite group, by Miller's theorem.)
If $f: H\to H'$ is a geometric morphism, then the pullback functor $f^*: H'\to H$ induces a homomorphism $\pi_k^{H'}(S^n)\to \pi_k^{H}(S^n)$. In particular, if $H$ has a point (a geometric morphism $\mathrm{Spaces}\to H$), then $\pi_kS^n$ is a summand of $\pi_k^HS^n$.
Edit. As I understand it, if $H$ is cohesive, then $p^\*: \mathrm{Spaces} \to H$ is supposed to be fully faithful, where $p:H\to\mathrm{Spaces}$ is the unique geometric morphism. Spheres are in the image of $p^\*$, so it ought to follow that that $\pi_k^H S^n = \pi_kS^n$. The only example of cohesive topos I understand is $H=s\mathrm{Spaces}$ (simplicial spaces), and it is certainly true in this case.