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I'm sure you omitted this just because it's too classic: big part of group theory was invented just to prove that most roots of unity cannot be constructed by quadratic (or cyclic) extensions. Yet it's

It's still a very good examplethe best, most direct connection between [nt.number-theory] and [gr.group-theory] I know of.

For a more "advanced" version of this, do computations of group cohomology count?

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I'm sure you omitted this just because it's too classic: big part of group theory was invented just to prove that most roots of unity cannot be constructed by quadratic extensions. Yet it's still a very good example.