Offhand I can think of two ways in classical homotopy theory:

1. Show that $\pi_k(S^n)=0$ for $k\lt n$ by deforming a map $S^k\to S^n$ to be non-surjective, then contracting it away from a point not in its image. Now use the Hurewicz theorem to show $\pi_n(S^n) = H_n(S^n) = \mathbb{Z}$, which is easy to calculate with cellular homology.

2. Use the Freudenthal suspension theorem to induct up from $\pi_1(S^1)=\mathbb{Z}$, which you can prove using (say) the universal covering space $\mathbb{R}\to S^1$.

What other ways are there to prove $\pi_n(S^n)=\mathbb{Z}$?